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Question d'Europe n 45
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20th November 2006

roductivity, working hours and employment levels in the European Union


Author : Jean-François Jamet : Former student at the Ecole Normal Supérieur and the University of Harvard is an economist and teaches at Sciences-Po (http://www.jf-jamet.eu/)


« L'Union européenne conjugue une productivité horaire, un nombre d'heures travaillées et un taux d'emploi plus faibles qu'aux Etats-Unis »


Résumé

Combiner une forte productivité par actif occupé, un temps de travail limité et l'emploi d'une large part de la population en âge de travailler semble un objectif difficile à atteindre. Trouver la meilleure solution possible à cette difficile équation est pourtant primordial car le compromis obtenu affecte directement le bien-être des individus : la productivité est corrélée au niveau de vie des actifs occupés, le taux d'emploi détermine la capacité à répartir l'effort productif et à employer les personnes en âge de travailler et le temps de travail définit implicitement le partage du temps personnel entre travail et loisir. L'Union européenne se distingue par un faible nombre d'heures travaillées par personne occupée, par une productivité de la main-d'œuvre plus faible qu'aux Etats-Unis mais plus forte qu'au Japon et enfin par un faible taux d'emploi. Les travailleurs européens réussissent donc à être productifs en travaillant peu mais seule une faible proportion de la population en âge de travailler a un emploi. On peut avancer deux explications à cette caractéristique européenne : l'une est la « préférence pour le loisir » des travailleurs européens (avec une durée hebdomadaire du travail relativement courte et un départ précoce à la retraite), l'autre est la difficulté d'accès à l'emploi des actifs les moins productifs (qui biaise vers le haut les statistiques de productivité).

Mots clefs :
Union européenne – emploi – productivité


La productivité de la main-d'œuvre est traditionnellement mesurée par la productivité par personne occupée, c'est-à-dire par la production rapportée au nombre de personnes ayant un emploi. Le graphique 1 permet de comparer les performances de l'Union et des Etats membres au regard de cet indicateur. Il montre que la productivité européenne par personne occupée est inférieure de 26,7% à celle des Etats-Unis et légèrement supérieure à celle du Japon. Les résultats sont néanmoins très hétérogènes au sein de l'Union puisque la productivité des Etats membres varie du simple au triple : les pays d'Europe centrale et orientale accusent encore un retard important sur les pays d'Europe occidentale avec une productivité sensiblement en dessous de la moyenne européenne.




La croissance de la productivité par personne occupée mesurée en termes réels a été relativement modérée dans l'Union européenne au cours de ces dix dernières années (cf. graphique 2) : avec une croissance de 1,4% en moyenne annuelle, la productivité de l'Union européenne s'est accrue à un rythme équivalent à celui du Japon mais inférieur à celui des Etats-Unis (2,1%). Autrement dit, l'écart se creuse entre l'Union et les Etats-Unis en termes de productivité. En 10 ans, la productivité par personne occupée s'est accrue de 16700 dollars aux Etats-Unis contre 8450 dollars dans l'Union européenne. Au sein de l'Union, ce sont les pays ayant les niveaux de productivité les plus faibles qui ont connu la croissance de la productivité la plus rapide (entre 2,8 et 7,3% dans les pays d'Europe centrale et orientale).




Il existe deux raisons au fait que la productivité par personne employée soit plus faible dans l'Union européenne qu'aux Etats-Unis : le nombre d'heures travaillées et la productivité horaire y sont plus faibles. Le nombre d'heures travaillées, en moyenne, par une personne ayant un emploi est peu important dans l'Union européenne (cf. graphique 3) : il s'élève à 1624 heures par an contre 1749 heures au Japon et 1819 heures aux Etats-Unis. De même que la productivité, le temps de travail varie largement d'un Etat membre à l'autre. Le nombre d'heures travaillées annuellement est compris entre 1806 et 2166 heures dans les pays d'Europe centrale et orientale alors qu'il est inférieur à 1450 heures en France, en Allemagne et aux Pays-Bas. Au sein de l'Union européenne, ce n'est donc pas le nombre d'heures travaillées qui explique les différentiels de productivité par personne occupée mais le niveau de productivité horaire (cf. graphique 4).




L'analyse de la productivité horaire permet de s'intéresser au niveau de productivité de la main-d'œuvre indépendamment du nombre d'heures travaillées. La productivité horaire de la main-d'œuvre communautaire est inférieure de 18% à celle des États-Unis et supérieure de 10 % à celle du Japon. Au sein de l'Union européenne, les différences sont considérables entre Etats membres avec des écarts de 1 à plus de 4. Les pays d'Europe centrale et orientale présentent une productivité horaire encore très éloignée de celle des pays d'Europe occidentale. Certains pays comme la France ou l'Irlande disposent au contraire d'une productivité horaire supérieure à celle des Etats-Unis (cf. graphique 4).

Si un haut niveau de productivité horaire est souhaitable et constitue un bon indicateur de l'efficacité du travail utilisé dans une économie, il peut paraître difficile à combiner avec un taux d'emploi important. Le taux d'emploi est la proportion de la population en âge de travailler (15-64 ans) disposant d'un emploi. Un pays qui atteint un fort taux d'emploi et une productivité moyenne élevée est un pays qui réussit à faire participer à l'effort productif un très grand nombre de personnes, y compris les moins productives, sans pour autant que sa productivité moyenne ne soit trop affectée. Cela suppose que le niveau de productivité soit relativement homogène parmi les personnes en âge de travailler, c'est-à-dire que les personnes les moins productives aient aussi un niveau de productivité relativement élevé, ou bien qu'elles soient malgré tout employables (ce qui implique l'existence d'emplois peu qualifiés). Le compromis taux d'emploi/productivité horaire permet de mesurer la capacité d'une économie à atteindre à la fois un objectif d'efficacité économique (productivité du travail) et d'intégration sociale (capacité à donner un emploi aux personnes en âge de travailler). Le graphique 4 nous permet d'analyser les compromis obtenus par les différents pays.







L'Union européenne est moins performante que les Etats-Unis : la productivité horaire y est plus faible et le taux d'emploi y est de 7,7 points inférieur. La comparaison est plus difficile avec le Japon qui possède un taux d'emploi supérieur mais une productivité horaire plus faible que l'Union. En prenant comme point de référence la moyenne communautaire, on peut distinguer quatre types de situation :

- faible productivité/faible taux d'emploi : c'est le cas de nombreux pays d'Europe centrale et orientale mais aussi de la Grèce. Ce sont des pays où le système productif est comparativement moins efficace et où beaucoup de personne en âge de travailler n'ont pas d'emploi.

- faible productivité/fort taux d'emploi : c'est la situation de pays comme la Slovénie ou le Portugal, qui reflète une efficacité limitée mais une importante capacité à faire participer à l'effort productif les personnes en âge de travailler.

- forte productivité/faible taux d'emploi : c'est la caractéristique de pays comme la France avec une séparation très nette entre des travailleurs très productifs (les insiders) et une importante partie de la population qui n'accède pas à l'emploi (les outsiders).

- forte productivité/fort taux d'emploi : les pays scandinaves et anglo-saxons montrent qu'il est possible, avec deux modèles sociaux distincts, de combiner efficacité économique et participation du plus grand nombre à l'effort productif.

On peut affiner l'étude du taux d'emploi en s'intéressant plus particulièrement à l'emploi des jeunes (15-24 ans) et des seniors (55-64 ans). Le taux d'emploi varie avec l'âge moyen d'entrée et de sortie du marché du travail (fin des études/départ à la retraite) mais aussi avec la capacité à employer ces catégories de population. L'Union européenne se distingue par des taux d'emploi particulièrement faibles à la fois des jeunes et des seniors, ce que l'on illustre parfois en disant qu'en Europe « une seule génération est au travail » : l'effort productif est essentiellement assuré par les personnes âgées de 25 à 54 ans (cf. tableau 5)




La synthèse de la productivité par personne occupée et du taux d'emploi en un seul indicateur donne la productivité de la main-d'œuvre par personne en âge de travailler. Ainsi définie, la productivité de l'Union européenne est inférieure de 35% à celle des Etats-Unis et de 5,5 % à celle du Japon (cf. graphique 6).




Ce dernier constat comporte un objectif implicite pour l'Union : élever son niveau de productivité par personne en âge de travailler et ainsi son niveau de vie. Trois objectifs intermédiaires peuvent être envisagés : augmenter la productivité horaire, augmenter le nombre d'heures travaillées ou augmenter le taux d'emploi. Compte tenu de la préférence pour le loisir, on peut penser que le grand défi européen est de faire participer plus de personnes à l'effort productif sans affaiblir le niveau de productivité horaire, c'est-à-dire en relevant l'accès à l'emploi et la qualification des moins productifs. Ceci rend nécessaires des efforts en matière de formation tout au long de la vie, de développement des gisements d'emploi pour les moins productifs, d'amélioration de l'appariement entre offre et demande sur le marche du travail, d'accélération du retour à l'emploi et de réinsertion des personnes en âge de travailler sorties du marché du travail, et enfin de promotion de l'emploi des seniors et de l'emploi des jeunes.



Publishing Director: Pascale JOANNIN

The Robert Schuman Foundation, created in 1991 and acknowledged by State decree in 1992, is the main French research centre on Europe. It develops research on the European Union and its policies and promotes the content of these in France , Europe and abroad. It encourages, enriches and stimulates European debate thanks to its research, publications and the organisation of conferences. The Foundation is presided over by Mr. Jean-Dominique Giuliani.

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